The discovery of a new Roman villa or the deciphering of an ancient scroll still captivates our imagination. But why do some people feel such a strong pull toward things from the past, like ancient languages? It’s a question that goes beyond simple curiosity, touching on some of the deepest aspects of what it means to be human.
Ultimately, our fascination with the past is driven by two powerful forces: the practical and psychological.
The Practical: Developing Critical Thinking
Studying ancient languages and literatures requires rigorous analysis, critical evaluation of sources, and the ability to synthesize fragmented evidence. It’s a mental workout that builds skills in research, problem-solving, and logical reasoning, which are applicable to many different fields.
To understand how reading ancient Greek or Latin texts develops critical thinking, for example, consider a passage from a historical account, such as a work by the Roman historian Tacitus:
Annals (Tacitus)The Annals (Latin: Annales) by Roman historian and senator Tacitus is a history of the Roman Empire from the reign of Tiberius to that of Nero, the years AD 14–68. The Annals are an important source for modern understanding of the history of the Roman Empire during the 1st century AD
Imagine we are a student reading a section of Tacitus’ Annals, which details the reign of Emperor Tiberius. We come across a passage where Tacitus describes a particular senator, Sejanus, as being power-hungry, manipulative, and a major threat to the emperor. Tacitus presents this view with strong, often loaded, language.
By questioning the source, we first recognize that Tacitus is not a neutral observer. He was writing decades after the events he describes, during a time when his political sympathies were decidedly anti-imperial. Critical thinking prompts us to ask:
- What was Tacitus’s purpose in writing this? Was he trying to present an objective history, or was he using the past to critique the present?
- What were his sources of information? Did he have access to firsthand accounts, or was he relying on rumors and later historical works?
- How might his personal biases have influenced his portrayal of Sejanus?
Latin and Greek are highly structured and rich in rhetorical devices. Analyzing how Tacitus presents his information is also, quite on the contrary, part of practicing the critical thinking. For instance:
- Is he using direct statements, or is he employing irony and insinuation?
- What specific words does he choose to describe Sejanus? Are they neutral adjectives, or are they emotionally charged? For example, does he use a word like “ambitious” or a more damning term like “treacherous”?
- What is the grammatical structure of the sentence? Is the emphasis placed on Sejanus’s actions or on his motivations?
In the Tacitus example, analyzing the language and rhetoric is not just about appreciating his writing style; it’s the very core of critical thinking because it helps us understand the situation subjectively. This might seem counterintuitive - we think of critical thinking as leading to objectivity - but in the context of ancient history, understanding the author’s subjectivity is the only path to a more objective understanding of the event itself.
When Tacitus writes, he isn’t a modern journalist striving for neutrality. He is a Roman aristocrat writing with a specific worldview. By analyzing his language, we can identify his intent and bias. There are at least 2 approaches for doing this:
- Loaded Words: Tacitus uses the Latin word perfidus to describe Sejanus. While a dictionary might translate it simply as “treacherous,” the word carries a heavy moral weight. It’s not just a description of an action but a moral condemnation. A critical reader notes this word choice and thinks: “Tacitus isn’t just reporting that Sejanus betrayed someone; he is explicitly telling me that Sejanus is a bad person.” This reveals Tacitus’s perspective and his desire to shape the reader’s opinion.
- Rhetorical Devices: can make writer’s point without explicitly stating it. Tacitus might use insinuation or juxtaposition. For example, he might describe Sejanus’s rise to power and then, in the very next sentence, mention a sudden, unexplained illness of Tiberius’s son. He never directly accuses Sejanus of poisoning the son, but by placing the two facts together, he guides the reader to a suspicious conclusion. A critical reader recognizes this rhetorical move and understands that Tacitus is crafting a narrative, not just presenting a timeline of events.
In addition, analyzing the language helps us draw the line between “fact” and “interpretation” which has become blurry. For example, Tacitus might state, “Sejanus was the commander of the Praetorian Guard.” This is a factual statement that can be corroborated. However, when he writes, “Sejanus, swollen with arrogant ambition, began to dominate the emperor,” he is offering an interpretation of Sejanus’s motivations. By paying close attention to the adjectives (arrogant) and adverbs (dominate), a critical reader can separate the verifiable fact from the author’s subjective judgment. We learn not what happened, but what Tacitus thought about what happened.
Tacitus often uses language designed to evoke emotion - outrage, fear, or contempt. By studying his syntax and word choice, we can see how he is trying to manipulate his readers’ feelings. A critical reader asks: “Why is he trying to make me feel this way? What is his ultimate goal in arousing this emotion?” We are essentially reverse-engineering the text’s persuasive effect.
TIPAnalyzing Tacitus’s language and rhetoric doesn’t make us more objective in a simple, straightforward way. Instead, it makes us critically aware of the author’s subjectivity. We learn to see Tacitus as a product of his time and his class, with his own agendas and biases. By understanding his subjective perspective, we can then more accurately weigh his testimony against other sources (Suetonius, Cassius Dio, archaeological evidence) and piece together a more nuanced and “objective” picture of what actually occurred in Tiberius’s court. We don’t just read history; we learn to read the historian.
A critical reader doesn’t stop with Tacitus. They would then look for other sources to compare and contrast. They would read the works of other ancient historians who wrote about the same period, such as Suetonius or Cassius Dio to see if their accounts of Sejanus match Tacitus’s and where do they differ. They also might consider the political climate to verify whether Sejanus is truly a threat to the emperor, or was he a scapegoat for Tiberius’s own unpopular policies
By engaging in this process, we move beyond simply translating the words on the page. we are actively evaluating the information, questioning the author’s intent, and building a more nuanced and accurate picture of historical events. This process of critical analysis is the core of historical scholarship and is a fundamental skill developed by studying ancient texts.
Differing from Contemporary Materials
But the process above can also be achieved through contemporary news reading. After all, critical thinking is vital for reading contemporary news, and the skills we use - like questioning the source, identifying bias, and looking for corroborating evidence - are fundamentally the same. What makes ancient texts special then?
What’s special in this context is the sheer intensity of the critical thinking required, due to a unique set of challenges and limitations. These challenges that make ancient texts a powerful and distinctive training ground for critical thinking are:
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The Time and Culture Gap: When we read contemporary news, we share a common cultural context with the writer and the events being reported. We understand the political system, the social norms, and the language nuances. With an ancient text, we are a complete outsider. This forces us to think about:
- Unknown Biases: What were the author’s social class, political allegiances, and religious beliefs? We often have to infer these from limited information.
- Unfamiliar Values: Ancient societies had completely different ethical frameworks. A “hero” in ancient Greek literature might be a ruthless tyrant by today’s standards. We have to analyze the text on its own terms before we can evaluate it from a modern perspective.
- Lost Context: We are missing so much information. We don’t have the “live broadcasts” or “interviews” that a modern journalist has. The text is often a fragment of a larger work, and many other sources from that time period are lost forever.
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The Problem of Physical Survival: A modern news article is easily verified or debunked by a vast network of other sources, photos, and digital archives. An ancient text exists as a physical object - a manuscript - that has been copied by hand over centuries, often with errors, deliberate changes, and missing parts. This adds a whole new layer of critical thinking:
- Textual Criticism: We have to analyze the different surviving manuscripts to reconstruct what the original author might have written. Was this word or phrase a scribe’s mistake? Was this entire section added later? This is a form of forensic analysis that is rarely needed for a modern text.
- Translation Challenges: The meaning of an ancient word can be contested. A single Latin word might have a dozen possible translations, and we choice can completely change the interpretation of a passage. This forces us to weigh evidence and argue for our chosen meaning.
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The Absence of a “Truth” to Check Against: When a modern news source makes a claim, we can often check it against other news outlets, official statements, or data. With ancient history, there is often no definitive “truth.” The ancient sources are the evidence. The “truth” is what we can construct from a careful, critical, and humble evaluation of those sources. Our critical thinking is not just about identifying errors; it’s about building an entire historical narrative from the ground up, based on a handful of fragmentary documents.
Developing Critical Thinking Skills
Developing critical thinking skills gradually with ancient texts is a process that builds upon itself, moving from a foundation of language mechanics to higher-level historical and literary analysis in phases. The idea is to systematically train our mind to move from literal translation and grammar-based logic to nuanced, multi-layered critical analysis. This process not only makes us a more careful reader of ancient texts but also a more rigorous and skeptical reader of all information.
Phase 1: Learning Language (Months 1-12)
This phase is all about learning the tools of the trade. We can’t critically analyze a text if we can’t read it. It’s the foundation. Start with the basics. Don’t worry about complex philosophy just yet. Focus on learning the language itself. Master the grammar and vocabulary of a language like Latin or Ancient Greek. This initial step is a critical thinking exercise in itself, as we are learning to solve a logical puzzle with every sentence we translate.
The ideal amount of time we spend each day during the “Foundations” period should be based on consistency and focused effort - a moderate, daily commitment is far more effective than sporadic, long study sessions. A realistic and sustainable goal for the first 1-12 months would be to aim for 30 to 90 minutes per day, six to seven days a week, depending on how busy we are on a particular day:
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30 Minutes: The Absolute Minimum. This is the time we should aim for even on our busiest days. It’s enough to review vocabulary flashcards, go over a grammar point from our textbook, or translate a short sentence or two. The goal here is to maintain daily exposure to the language and prevent ourselves from losing momentum. Consistency is the most important factor in language learning, and a short daily session is the key to maintaining it.
Anki Flashcards with LexitherasAnki is by far the best flashcard offering the maximized personalization and it supports literally every computing platforms on this planet, such as Android. Anki enables us to make use of time pockets on the go in whatever way we want. Once Anki is installed, we can use Lexitheras to auto generate flashcards
Terminal window pip3 install lexitheraslexitheras iliad -
60 Minutes: The Ideal Sweet Spot. An hour a day allows for a more comprehensive session. We can dedicate a portion of this time to learning new material (a new chapter or a set of new vocabulary words) and another portion to reviewing old material. This time frame allows us to move at a good pace without feeling overwhelmed. It’s often the minimum amount of time recommended by many serious self-learners and can be broken up into smaller chunks throughout the day if a full hour isn’t possible all at once.
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90 Minutes: The Accelerated Approach. If you have more time and want to make faster progress, 90 minutes is an excellent target. With this amount of time, we can tackle more challenging exercises, review material more thoroughly, and start to build more complex sentences. It allows us to both learn and apply the new information in a single session.
In addition, instead of thinking, “I need to study for 60 minutes,” think about what we will accomplish during that time. Our study session should be an active process, not a passive one. A good daily plan could look like this:
- 5-10 minutes: Review old vocabulary with flashcards.
- 20-30 minutes: Work through new grammar and examples in our textbook.
- 20-30 minutes: Translate a short passage from the textbook or an easy reader.
- 5-10 minutes: Recite vocabulary out loud or review the text we just translated.
TIPMost people with jobs are most free after dinner. There are 2 periods at night
- After dinner
- Before sleeping
From a cognitive and neurological perspective, studying just before we go to sleep at night is generally considered the more effective of the two options for memorization. The primary reason for this is a process called memory consolidation. When we sleep, our brain is not inactive; it is working to process, organize, and consolidate the information we learned while you were awake. This process moves new memories from a short-term, fragile state to a more stable, long-term state. Studying right before sleep allows this consolidation process to begin with the most recently learned information fresh in your mind, which can significantly improve recall.
While studying after dinner might also be effective, it often comes with a few potential drawbacks. The period after a meal can sometimes be associated with a “post-lunch dip” or a feeling of drowsiness, especially if the meal was large. Additionally, if there are hours of wakefulness between studying and sleeping, other activities, information, or distractions can interfere with the memory consolidation process.
The period directly before sleep has a significant scientific advantage due to the powerful role of sleep in cementing new information into long-term memory
By focusing on daily, consistent, and active engagement, we will build a strong foundation of grammar and vocabulary. This approach not only makes the process more manageable but also ensures that when we are ready to move to Phase 2.
The list below are my personal picks for materials used to study Ancient Greek, Latin, and other antiquity languages:
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Ancient Greek
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Latin
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Old Persian
Static Text Analysis
At this stage, our critical thinking is focused on a micro-level:
- Identify the Parts: Our task is to accurately identify nouns, verbs, adjectives, and their relationships. This is a puzzle-solving exercise. We aew asking: “This noun is in the accusative case; that means it’s the direct object of this verb. But what if it’s the subject of this infinitive clause?” This constant process of parsing and logical deduction is a direct exercise in critical thinking.
- Understand Grammar as Meaning: We learn that a specific grammatical choice (e.g., the use of the subjunctive mood) isn’t random; it conveys a particular meaning, such as uncertainty or a hypothetical condition. We are learning to read the author’s intentions through their grammatical choices.
Phase 2: The Transition (Months 12-24)
Once we have a firm grasp of grammar, we can start to apply our skills to more complex texts and begin to engage with the critical analysis aspect.
Transition from textbook’s simplified passages to real authors, like Caesar, Cicero, or Xenophon. These texts will be more complex and will present ambiguities.
Use a CommentaryA good commentary is our best friend. It won’t give us the answer, but it will provide context, point out potential ambiguities, and highlight scholarly debates. This is where we learn to “listen” to the critical conversation.
Begin to read for rhetoric by paying attention to the author’s style. For example, Caesar’s Gallic Wars, he uses the third person (“Caesar led his men…”) to create a sense of objectivity and authority, even when writing about his own actions. We are learning to identify a persuasive technique.
Phase 3: The Deep Dive (Year 3 Onwards)
This is where we fully develop our critical thinking skills by moving beyond individual texts to a broader historical and philosophical context what include:
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secondary sources: Beyond the ancient authors, we will also read what modern scholars say about them. This exposes us to different interpretations, methodologies, and scholarly debates. We might find two historians who have completely opposite views on an event described by Livy, and our job is to evaluate their arguments and the evidence they use.
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different genres collectively compared: Read a historical text (e.g., Thucydides’ History) alongside a philosophical one (e.g., Plato’s Republic) and a play (e.g., a tragedy by Sophocles) from the same time period.
- How does the portrayal of “justice” differ between these 3 genres?
- How do the authors use their respective forms to convey their ideas?
This is where we develop the ability to think interdisciplinarily and to synthesize information from a variety of sources, which is a hallmark of sophisticated critical thinking.
The Psychological: Nostalgia and a Longing for the Past
Image source: Latin Paleography
While some people may have a romanticized view of the past, there is a deep human connection to history that can be comforting. Thinking about the past can provide a sense of continuity and resilience, reminding us of challenges that have been overcome and providing a sense of hope for the future. We now discuss the deep-seated mechanisms of human psychology. While the previous discussion focused on the “what” and “how” of studying ancient texts, we question now gets to the “why” on a personal, emotional level.
It is a well-established concept in Psychology that a person’s obsess to the past is tied to their past experiences, both personal and cultural. Here we frame it in a particularly compelling way through the lens of ancient languages. But before we get into that, we first need to learn some Psychologies
The Psychology of Nostalgia: A Coping Mechanism
Psychologists now understand nostalgia not as a disease (as it was once thought), but as a powerful and generally positive emotional tool.1 It’s often triggered by feelings of loneliness, uncertainty, or stress.2 When we feel disconnected or overwhelmed in the present, our minds can instinctively reach back into memory for comfort.3
(To be continued…)
Footnotes
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https://www.miragenews.com/why-we-long-for-the-past-the-science-behind-1013752/#:~:text=Contrary%20to%20previous%20beliefs%20that,stress%2C%20loneliness%2C%20or%20transition. ↩
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https://mentalzon.com/en/post/2046/nostalgia-the-surprising-psychology-behind-our-longing-for-the-past#:~:text=Nostalgia%20tends%20to%20loom%20large,isolation%2C%20or%20feelings%20of%20loneliness. ↩
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https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/nostalgia#:~:text=Helps%20Shape%20Us-,The%20Emotional%20Comfort%20of%20Nostalgia,can%20give%20us%20emotional%20comfort. ↩